Fire Risks in Energy Technologies Position Statement
1. Issue identification
Energy technologies generate, convert, store and distribute various forms of energy from a range of energy sources. They are rapidly evolving as the demand for sustainable energy sources increases.
One of the most prevalent energy technologies in use currently are lithium-ion batteries. These batteries pose a significant fire risk due to thermal runaway, which can occur due to issues including, but not limited to, damage, aging, improper charging, discharging or misuse, flawed design, and low-quality components. Thermal runaway can rapidly produce toxic and explosive vapours and can result in a fire and/or explosion. These fires, unlike others, can continue to develop in the absence of oxygen. If a fire occurs, it may reignite, making these fires particularly dangerous for both the public and for firefighters. Furthermore, the public are often unaware of how to correctly maintain, take care of, and dispose of lithium-ion batteries, resulting in them causing serious fires for the waste industry.
Lithium-ion batteries are used in many appliances and products found in homes and public spaces. At the larger end of the scale, lithium-ion batteries are being deployed as grid scale Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) which can capture the energy in times of low demand and provide almost instantaneous support to the National Grid at times of high demand. At the mid-scale, battery energy storage is used in both commercial and domestic settings to store energy created locally from wind turbines or photovoltaic (solar) panels. As well as being used in small household products such as electric toothbrushes, tools, toys, mobile phones, tablets, laptops and in vapes, lithium-ion batteries are also used to power Personal Light Electric Vehicles (PLEVs) such as e-bikes and e-scooters, as well as Electric Vehicles (EVs).
Lithium-ion batteries used in poorly manufactured or converted PLEVs are currently causing the most pressing fire safety concerns since there have been injuries and a number of fatalities as a result of fires caused by them. Particular concerns have arisen around members of the public converting or modifying a standard bike to an e-bike using poor quality conversion kits. While lithium-ion batteries are currently at the forefront of fire safety concerns, they are not the only energy technology that may present emerging risks; as the energy landscape continues to evolve at pace — for example the development of alternatives such as sodium-ion batteries — it is critical that safety systems and regulation keep pace with innovation to mitigate potential future hazards.
2. NFCC position
NFCC recognise that the UK Government’s strategic priorities of energy independence and security necessitate innovation. However, product development and innovation can outpace safety standards and regulation, and the full risk of new and innovative products may not be understood until much later. Increased fire safety risks are a real concern for fire and rescue services (FRSs).
NFCC and FRSs are greatly concerned by the increasing number of fires caused by lithium-ion batteries in e-bikes and e-scooters and safety should be an inherent consideration in all battery products on the market. There are already a large number of products in the hands of consumers which could present fire safety risks. In the interim whilst new standards and legislation are developed to protect against future risks, measures are needed to address existing risks.
Looking to the future, standards, regulation and statutory guidance to mitigate fire safety risks associated with energy technology must be capable of being updated and adapted in a timely way to keep pace with the development of new energy technologies.
3. Recommendations
NFCC calls on the UK Government and Devolved Administrations to:
Minimise energy technology fire safety risks by:
- Urgently introducing enforceable, mandatory enhanced product safety rules that include dedicated product standards and third-party certification testing requirements for PLEVs such as e-bikes, e-scooters, mobility scooters, electric wheelchairs, chargers, batteries, and e-bike conversion kits.
- Establishing enforceable, mandatory online marketplace regulations to ensure that all PLEVs, along with their related batteries, chargers, and conversion kits sold in the UK – whether sold physically or via online platforms – meet UK designated standards (i.e., UKCA or CE approved). These product safety and marketplace regulations must be capable of being updated, amended, or replaced in a timely manner to address the manufacture of new energy technology-powered products and emerging risks.
- Ensuring that there is an appropriate regime in place for the disposal of lithium-ion batteries, including damaged lithium-ion batteries, that is accessible for consumers to engage with and mitigates fire risks. This regime must take into account the fire risks presented by small, medium and large lithium-ion batteries and be kept under review and adapted as the energy technology sector evolves.
- Ensuring that Building Regulations guidance (‘Approved Documents’ in England and equivalents in the Devolved Administrations) protect against the fire safety risks of existing energy technology risks in the built environment, such as storage and charging of PLEVs, EV charge points, and anticipated future energy technology risks.
- Ensuring that FRS concerns and advice are taken into account and responded to when they are consulted about fire safety risks. This includes when FRSs comment on compliance with the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 (as amended) in responding to Building Regulations consultations as a statutory consultee.
Enhance public awareness of energy technology fire safety risks by:
- Reviewing and consolidating national public education and awareness campaigns on products containing lithium-ion batteries as part of a longer-term funding commitment to fire safety education. This would ensure the public are better informed to make safe choices on the purchase of products and encouraged to behave in ways that are safe when handling products post-purchase all the way through to end-of-life and disposal. Such campaigns should be targeted at those most at risk.
Ensure effective FRS response to energy technology fire safety risks by:
- Investing in a programme of continuous research on best practice firefighting tactics for fire incidents involving energy technology to inform training and operational guidance.
Strengthen governance and strategic oversight of energy technology fire safety risks by:
- Ensuring Government departments and the Devolved Administrations work in an integrated and coordinated way and regularly consult with fire safety experts to support and inform longer-term strategic risk horizon-scanning.
- Revisiting the UK Battery Strategy Taskforce membership to ensure FRS fire safety expertise representation.
4. Supporting evidence
Increasing fire safety risks associated with lithium-ion batteries in PLEVs
E-bikes and e-scooters powered by lithium-ion batteries are increasingly popular, however there has been a significant increase in the number of fires associated with these products. In some cases, tragically, these fires have resulted in fatalities. Many of these fires have also caused extensive and costly property damage.
There is currently no data reporting mechanism in place for FRSs to accurately record when a lithium-ion battery fire occurs, however NFCC has previously worked closely with the Home Office, and going forward with Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government (MHCLG), to ensure that there is a mechanism to do so in the imminent future.
A search of free text inputs to the MHCLG Incident Recording System (IRS), formerly a Home Office system, identified that between January 2021 and September 2023, 139 fires records mentioned “e-bike” and 124 fires mentioned “e-scooter”.[1] The Home Office noted that the quality and extent of the data provided was variable and its accuracy or completeness could not be guaranteed. NFCC believes the scale of the issue to be significantly greater than indicated by this data, especially considering that a single FRS, London Fire Brigade (LFB) attended 179 incidents involving e-bike or e-scooter fires in 2023 alone.[2]
In addition to FRS incident recording, FRS fire investigators across the UK notify the Office for Product Standards and Safety (OPSS) of fires involving consumer products to help early identification of potential product safety issues. According to OPSS data[3], OPSS received information on 211 fires involving e-bikes or e-scooters that occurred in 2024. The majority of these reports (175) were from LFB. Of the 211 fires reported to OPSS, 170 were e-bike fires, with 45% (77) confirmed to be post-market conversions to electric. 39 fires involved e-scooters, 1 involving an e-unicycle, and 1 involving a mobility scooter. Concerningly, of the 211 fires reported in 2024, 48% (101 incidents) were recorded as having started in indoor environments, including areas such as bedrooms, living rooms, kitchens, corridors, and indoor storage spaces. There were 5 fire incidents involving e-bikes and e-scooters notified to OPSS in 2024 that resulted in fatalities. These incidents led to a total of 8 fatalities. 42 fires involved non-fatal casualties (there were 86 casualties in total).
Since incident reporting to OPSS is voluntary and the majority were the 175 reported by LFB, OPSS figures are also likely to be an underestimate. Indeed, LFB state that e-bikes and e-scooters to be London’s fastest growing fire risk.[4]
PLEV fire risks are not solely caused by technical issues with certain products or the mismatching of chargers and batteries; risks are reflective of wider societal and economic inequalities. Safer e-bikes and e-scooters are prohibitively expensive for large numbers of people, and many vulnerable groups instead choose to adapt or modify their bikes using cheaper products, often available online. Cheap batteries and conversion kits are often more prone to developing faults and pose an increased fire risk.
Since 2023, at least six Prevention of Future Death (Regulation 28) Reports have been issued following fatal fires linked to lithium-ion batteries in e-bikes and e-scooters.[5] These reports raise serious concerns about the public’s awareness of battery dangers, the increasing number of related fire incidents, and the widespread availability of unsafe e-bike conversion kits and chargers, particularly through online marketplaces. The reports highlight a critical lack of adequate regulation and safety standards for the sale of lithium-ion batteries and related components, pointing to a substantial and ongoing risk of further fatalities.
The need for robust product safety standards, rules and regulations for lithium-ion batteries, especially those in PLEVs
It is NFCC’s position that all lithium-ion battery powered products should be inherently safe for the consumer at point of purchase. OPSS research published in January 2025 included a review of battery standards which identified inconsistencies and gaps in legislation and standards, and highlighted areas for improvement to ensure the safety of products. The research report concluded that “enforcement legislation and market surveillance may currently be compromised by a lack of consistency in the consumer safety legislation which applies to PLEV products, particularly separately sold batteries. Further inconsistency and shortcomings in the supporting standards also undermine the need for clarity, uniformity and technical robustness to help manufacturers to comply with legislative requirements.”[6]
Currently, many PLEV products, including complete e-bikes and e-scooters and conversion kits, are covered by the Supply of Machinery (Safety) Regulations 2008 (SMSR).[7] However, separately sold batteries, often used in conversion kits, are covered by the General Product Safety Regulations 2005[8] (GPSR) or the Electrical Equipment (Safety) Regulations 2016[9] (EESR). These regulations require all consumer products placed on the market to be safe in their normal or reasonably foreseeable use but do not contain detailed health and safety requirements. Furthermore, there is no dedicated standard to cover conversion kits, and there is currently no legal nor industry definition of a conversion kit from which a standard could be created.
NFCC welcomes OPSS’s new statutory guidelines for businesses producing and distributing lithium-ion batteries for e-bikes and commissioning the British Standards Institution (BSI) to develop a new Publicly Available Specification (PAS) (fast track standard) to cover the safety of lithium-ion batteries. [10] However, NFCC advocates that there is the need for local Trading Standards departments to be adequately resourced so they have capacity to enforce the GPSR and issue sanctions, including criminal sanctions, for those that do not comply.
NFCC is also supportive of the Product Regulation and Metrology Act[11], viewing it as a crucial step towards stronger product standards and regulation of online marketplaces. NFCC urges the government and devolved administrations to swiftly introduce enforceable rules to prevent the sale of unsafe e-bikes and e-scooters, and mandate third-party safety certification for such products before they reach the market. NFCC also stresses that future innovative products powered by batteries of differing chemical makeups or alternative energy technologies may pose new fire risks and calls for flexible, updatable legislation and enforcement to keep pace with emerging technologies and hazards.
The need for safe lithium-ion battery disposal
Regulations are also needed to address the incorrect and careless disposal of lithium-ion batteries, which can then go on to cause serious fires for the waste industry and significant community disruption. Waste fires are increasing at an alarming rate, with Material Focus research finding that there were over 1,200 battery fires in bin lorries and at waste sites in 2023, an increase of 71% from 700 in 2022.[12] This indicates a pressing need for improved public education on safe disposal, as well as enhanced waste disposal systems that take lithium-ion battery fire safety risks into consideration.
Lithium-ion batteries concealed within items pose a fire risk as they can ignite when crushed in a refuse vehicle or waste-processing plant. Waste fires often burn for days or even weeks causing extensive environmental damage and release harmful greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Large volumes of run-off water from extinguishing the fires causes water pollution. These fires can also result in disruption to the local community through rail, retail and road closures due to smoke from the fires. As well as significant material damage, waste site operators also experience business interruption and loss of recycling resources.
The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Regulations[13] set obligations for manufacturers, importers, and distributors to offer free takeback and disposal services for electrical and electronic waste, including items sold online. It is NFCC’s view that retailers and manufacturers should take full financial responsibility for ensuring the safe disposal of lithium-ion batteries. However, there is a significant gap in public guidance on how to safely dispose of damaged lithium-ion batteries, particularly those bought online. NFCC warns that improper disposal poses serious fire safety risks, both in households (where multiple battery-powered products may be stored) and in the waste management sector, as shown by a major fire in France involving 900 tonnes of lithium-ion batteries.[14]
As the UK Government reviews its producer responsibility system for electrical waste, the NFCC urges that fire safety be a core consideration in any new disposal framework. This includes improving consumer awareness, regulating battery storage in waste sites and collection vehicles, and designing safer disposal facilities to mitigate rising fire risks and their community and economic impacts.
Protection against energy technology fire safety risks in the built environment
A revision of the current system of building regulations guidance (Approved Documents)[1] following the Grenfell Tower Inquiry’s Phase 2 report is an opportunity to integrate measures that will protect against the fire safety risks of already existing and anticipated future energy technology in the built environment.
Use, storage and charging of PLEVs and other products powered by lithium-ion batteries
NFCC urges the government to update Approved Document B (ADB)[2] to address fire risks from lithium-ion battery-powered devices, especially those used in PLEVs, in both residential and commercial buildings. For existing buildings, Responsible Persons (RPs) should assess these risks and provide guidance to residents, particularly in buildings with unsafe cladding that await remediation. Government guidance to support RPs in how best undertake this is needed, drawing on international examples like New York City Housing Association (NYCHA), where residents and their guests may not keep or charge e-bikes or e-bike batteries in apartments or in common areas of NYCHA buildings[15].
Energy efficient buildings and Modern Methods of Construction (MMC)
With the UK’s push toward net zero by 2050, more energy-efficient buildings and retrofitting are expected, especially as the built environment contributes 25% of the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions[16]. Solar panel installation is growing, and the Future Homes Standard may mandate panels on all new homes by 2027. Meanwhile, Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) are being promoted for sustainability and affordability, though incidents like the Moorfield Hotel and Weybridge Hospital fires[17] have raised concerns about their fire safety.
NFCC stresses that sustainability and increased housing supply must not compromise fire safety. The current Building Regulations guidance is outdated and not suitable for either traditional or modern construction methods. FRSs play a key role in fire safety oversight, but it is not mandatory to act on their advice in the planning process. Given the growing integration of energy technologies in buildings, NFCC calls on Government to ensure that FRS concerns and advice are taken into account and responded to when they are consulted about fire safety risks.
Car parks and EV charge points
Already, EV charge point infrastructure is increasing to support the effort to decarbonise road transport with the Government setting out its ambition for all new cars to be zero emission by 2035.[18]
There are growing fire safety risks associated with the rapid expansion of EV infrastructure, particularly in car parks and transport hubs near or within residential and commercial buildings. EVs, with their large lithium-ion batteries, pose unique challenges such as rapid fire spread, difficult extinguishment, and structural risks in enclosed spaces. Although EVs may currently be less likely to ignite than internal combustion vehicles, aging and increased numbers of EV batteries could change this trend.
Concerns are especially acute for developments that include underground or enclosed EV bus parking below high-rise buildings, where fire behaviour is not yet well understood. A current example is a proposed development in London[19] which involves basement parking directly underneath a high-rise residential building for a large quantity of buses, which are planned to be superseded by EV buses.
NFCC calls for updates to Approved Document S (ADS) and ADB (Approved Document B)[3] to reflect modern vehicle fire risks. These updates should include stricter sprinkler and structural requirements, clearer guidance on EV charge point placement, isolation procedures, fire detection system integration, and firefighting access. Without these measures, there’s a risk of embedding future building safety issues into infrastructure intended to support decarbonisation.
The need for clear and consistent public awareness messaging and education campaigns
There is no single solution that on its own will prevent lithium-ion battery fires. However, in addition to enhanced enforceable product safety rules and robust online marketplace regulations, public awareness raising and education campaigns are also crucial in helping to inform the public on how to use, store, charge and dispose of energy technology safely.
At present there are a number of government departments each promoting different public messages[20] and balanced and informed messaging is needed. NFCC is of the view that there is the need to consolidate existing public education and awareness materials so that they are up to date, consistent, accessible and communicated in a targeted way. Government initiatives promoting sustainable green technologies, such as increased EV charge points or expanded e-bike use, should also educate on associated fire safety risks.
Ensuring effective FRS response to lithium-ion battery fires and robust data collection
Responding to increasing numbers of fires caused by lithium-ion energy technology places FRSs under additional operational strain and exposes firefighters to danger as fires can be explosive and produce harmful contaminants, including hydrogen fluoride and a variety of toxic gases.
Another challenge for FRSs is deploying best practice firefighting tactics in response to a fire incident. The fire dynamics of energy technologies is unpredictable and, whilst there are a range of tactical approaches and different equipment available, there is ‘no one size fits all’ approach to most effectively extinguish a fire caused by lithium-ion batteries.
FRSs have reported using various firefighting tactics to tackle lithium-ion battery fires – such as water, sand, fire blankets, CO₂, and battery piercing tools – with limited success. Water is commonly used but often struggles to cool internal battery cells and produces contaminated water runoff. Reignition risks mean water application may need to continue for days. A major issue is the lack of reliable data and evidence on the most effective firefighting methods, which hinders understanding of fire risks and safe practices. The OPSS highlights the need for robust data collection and research into unsafe products and fire causes.
A well-funded, cross-sector research program is recommended to develop and share best practices for handling fires involving modern energy technologies. The need for further research, operational guidance and public education also presents opportunities for UK innovation in fire safety solutions, similar to Australia’s EV FireSafe programme which is backed by Government support and funding.[21]
Strengthening governance and strategic oversight of energy technology fire safety risks
To be prepared for a future where energy technology is going to be increasingly common and developing at pace, horizon-scanning to understand future fire risks (and how to be prepared for them) is going to become more important. Forecasting reasonably foreseeable scenarios and taking action now to mitigate and prepare for anticipated risks is vital.
For example, in the very near future there will be a second-hand EV market with aging EV car batteries and charging infrastructure. Climate change impacts will also need to be taken into consideration. The Environment Agency’s recently published National Assessment of flood and coastal erosion risk in England reported that 6.3 million properties in England are in areas at risk of flooding and, looking ahead, this number could increase to around 8 million by 2050 (1 in 4 properties in England).[22] This means the public will need to understand how to look after, maintain, transport and store an EV car battery that has been exposed to flood waters.
More broadly, NFCC is of the view that strategic national planning on energy technology should be informed by fire safety expertise. In November 2023, the Department for Business and Trade published a UK Battery Strategy that sets out the Government’s vision for the UK to achieve a globally competitive battery supply chain by 2030.[23] Whilst a taskforce of industry and academic leaders was formed to support the strategy, fire safety professionals are notably absent from the group.
NFCC urges the government to consider potential fire risks associated with emerging battery technologies and ensure the country is prepared to manage these hazards effectively. The UK Battery Strategy Taskforce is seen as a key forum for addressing these concerns, and NFCC recommends adding fire sector representation to the membership to ensure comprehensive risk management and safety preparedness.
References
[1] Including equivalent building regulations guidance applicable in Devolved Administrations
[2] Including equivalent building regulations guidance applicable in Devolved Administrations
[3] Including equivalent building regulations guidance applicable in Devolved Administrations
[1] You searched for e-bike – Courts and Tribunals Judiciary
[2] Joint statement with Electrical Safety First on new Home Office numbers on fires, fatalities and casualties related to e-bikes and e-scooters – NFCC
[3] Fires in e-bikes and e-scooters – 2024 – GOV.UK
[4] #ChargeSafe: E-bike and e-scooters are London’s fastest-growing fire trend. | London Fire Brigade
[5] You searched for e-bike – Courts and Tribunals Judiciary
[6] PLEV battery safety research: executive summary and conclusions – GOV.UK
[7] The Supply of Machinery (Safety) Regulations 2008
[8] The General Product Safety Regulations 2005
[9] The Electrical Equipment (Safety) Regulations 2016
[10] Statutory guidelines on lithium-ion battery safety for e-bikes – GOV.UK
[11] Product Regulation and Metrology Act 2025
[12] UK Battery Fires Surge 71% to 1,200, Urging Recycling Push
[13] The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Regulations 2013 and The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (Amendment, etc.) Regulations 2025
[14] Hundreds of tonnes of lithium batteries catch fire in southern France causing huge fire | World News | Sky News
[15] Notice-of-Prohibition-on E-bikes-and-Batteries-7-7-22.pdf (nyc.gov)
[16] UK Green Building Council (UKGBC), Net Zero Whole Life Carbon Roadmap Technical Report (November 2021) p 10. Note: This figure includes buildings and infrastructure and relates to consumption emissions (i.e. the figure includes emissions from imported materials)
[17] Shetland fires ‘should act as warning to modular building industry’ – BBC News and Weybridge: Residents evacuated amid blaze at block of flats – BBC News
[18] Transitioning to zero emission cars and vans: 2035 delivery plan – GOV.UK
[19] Fire safety fears over plans for electric bus garage under block of flats in Edgware | The Standard
[20] See Government Safety Message on e-bikes and e-scooters – GOV.UK, Battery safety for e-cycle users – GOV.UK, Government relaunches Fire Kills campaign – GOV.UK, Statutory guidelines on lithium-ion battery safety for e-bikes – GOV.UK
[22] National assessment of flood and coastal erosion risk in England 2024
[23] UK battery strategy – GOV.UK
Equalities Impact Assessment
Fire Risks in Energy Technologies Position Statement equalities impact assessment